Medical Imaging Principles, Detectors, and Electronics

by Iniewski, Krzysztof

Edition: 1st

ISBN13: 9780470391648

ISBN10: 0470391642

Format: Hardcover

Pub. Date: 2009-03-23

Publisher(s): Wiley-Interscience

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Summary

Addressing state-of-the-art integrated circuit design in the context of medical imaging of the human body, Electronics for Medical Imaging reviews a wide variety of new opportunities in ultra-sound, computer tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and nuclear medicine (PET, SPECT), emerging detector technologies, circuit design techniques, new materials, and innovative system approaches. This book not only discusses the technologies themselves, but also provides electronics engineers, biomedical engineers, researchers in medical research, medical physicists, and professional engineers with information on how to design electronics for each technology.

Author Biography

Krzysztof Iniewski, PhD, manages R&D chip development activities at Redlen Technologies. Previously, he was an associate professor in the electrical engineering and computer engineering department of the University of Alberta, where he conducted research on low-power wireless circuits and systems. His research interests are in VLSI circuits for medical and security applications. Dr. Iniewski has published over 100 international journal or conference papers, and holds eighteen international patents.

Preface	p. xiii
About the Editor	p. xv
Contributors	p. xvii
X-Ray Imaging and Computed Tomography	p. 1
X-Ray and Computed Tomography Imaging Principles	p. 3
Introduction to X-Ray Imaging	p. 3
X-Ray Generation	p. 6
X-Ray Interaction with Matter	p. 9
X-Ray Detection	p. 12
Electronics for X-Ray Detection	p. 13
CT Imaging Principle	p. 14
CT Scanners	p. 15
Color X-Ray Imaging	p. 17
Future of X-Ray and CT Imaging	p. 18
References	p. 21
Active Matrix Flat Panel Imagers (AMFPI) for Diagnostic Medical Imaging Applications	p. 23
Introduction	p. 23
Digital Imaging	p. 23
Detection Schemes	p. 24
Chapter Organization	p. 27
Pixel Technology	p. 27
Operation	p. 27
Introduction	p. 27
Operation	p. 28
Charge Sensing or Voltage Sensing?	p. 29
Gain and Linearity	p. 30
Readout Rate	p. 30
Fabrication	p. 31
TFT Structure and Process	p. 31
Nonoverlapped Electrode Process	p. 32
Fully Overlapped Process	p. 33
TFT Metastability	p. 33
Physical Mechanisms	p. 33
Positive Gate Bias Stress	p. 37
Negative Gate Bias Stress	p. 37
Effect of DC Bias Stress on Leakage Current	p. 38
Pulse Bias Metastability	p. 38
Electronic Noise	p. 41
Thermal Noise	p. 41
Flicker Noise	p. 42
Noise in PPS Pixels	p. 44
Recent Developments	p. 45
Current Mode Active Pixel Sensor	p. 46
Linearity	p. 47
Gain	p. 48
Application to Emerging Diagnostic Medical X-Ray Imaging Modalities	p. 52
Dual-Mode Radiography/Fluoroscopy (R/F)	p. 52
3D Mammography Tomosynthesis	p. 53
References	p. 55
Circuits for Digital X-Ray Imaging: Counting and Integration	p. 59
Introduction	p. 59
Image Formation	p. 59
X-Ray Detectors	p. 60
Indirect Detectors	p. 60
Direct Detectors	p. 60
Hybrid Pixel Detectors	p. 60
Readout Concepts for Hybrid Pixel Detectors	p. 61
Circuit Implementation	p. 61
The Photon Counter	p. 62
The Integrator	p. 63
The Feedback Circuit	p. 66
Feedback and Signal Duplication	p. 66
Static Leakage Current Compensation	p. 67
Sampling	p. 67
Experimental Results	p. 68
Photon Counter Measurements	p. 68
Dynamic Range	p. 68
Electronic Noise	p. 69
Noise Count Rate	p. 69
Integrator Measurements	p. 71
Dynamic Range	p. 71
Noise Performance	p. 71
Simultaneous Photon Counting and Integration	p. 72
Total Dynamic Range	p. 72
Pulse Size Reconstruction	p. 74
Spectral Resolution	p. 75
Spectral Hardening	p. 75
Conclusion	p. 76
References	p. 77
Noise Coupling in Digital X-Ray Imaging	p. 79
Characterization of Noise Problems in Detector Systems	p. 79
Noise Mechanisms in Readout Electronics	p. 82
Noise Models	p. 83
Capacitive Coupling	p. 84
Impact Ionization	p. 85
Physical Properties	p. 86
Power Distribution Networks	p. 86
Substrates	p. 88
Simulation Models in Various Design Levels	p. 92
Readout Electronics Noise Coupling in Digital X-Ray Systems	p. 93
Noise Coupling Effects on the Design Example System	p. 94
References	p. 97
Nuclear Medicine (Spect and Pet)	p. 101
Nuclear Medicine: SPECT and PET Imaging Principles	p. 103
Introduction	p. 103
Nuclear Medicine Imaging	p. 104
Radiotracers	p. 105
Detection Systems	p. 107
Clinical SPECT Camera-Principles of Operation	p. 107
Clinical PET-Principles of Operation	p. 111
Comparison of Small Animal Scanners with Clinical Systems	p. 114
Electronic Collimation Principle and Compton Camera	p. 116
Hybrid SPECT-CT and PET-CT Systems	p. 117
Physics Effects Limiting Quantitative Measurement	p. 117
Tomographic Reconstruction Methods	p. 118
Filtered Back-Projection Reconstruction	p. 118
Iterative Reconstruction Algorithms	p. 119
Dynamic Imaging	p. 121
Quantitative Imaging	p. 122
Clinical Applications	p. 123
References	p. 124
Low-Noise Electronics for Radiation Sensors	p. 127
Introduction: Readout of Signals from Radiation Sensors	p. 127
Low-Noise Charge Amplification	p. 129
Input MOSFET Optimization	p. 129
Adaptive Continuous Reset	p. 135
Shaping and Baseline Stabilization	p. 138
High-Order Shaping	p. 139
Output Baseline Stabilization-The Baseline Holder	p. 146
Extraction	p. 150
Single- and Multiamplitude Discrimination	p. 150
Peak- and Time-Detection: The Multiphase Peak Detector	p. 152
Current-Mode Peak Detector and Digitizer	p. 158
Conclusions	p. 160
Acknowledgments	p. 160
References	p. 160
Ultrasound Imaging	p. 165
Electronics for Diagnostic Ultrasound	p. 167
Introduction	p. 167
Ultrasound Imaging Principles	p. 168
Ultrasound Scanning	p. 169
Sector Scan Probes	p. 170
Linear Scan Probes	p. 170
Curved Array Probes	p. 170
Compound Imaging	p. 171
Understanding Ultrasound Images	p. 171
Ultrasound Tissue Phantom	p. 171
Diagnostic Images	p. 172
Ultrasound Beam Formation	p. 172
Focusing and Steering	p. 172
Translation of the Aperture	p. 173
Transmit Beam Formation	p. 173
Receive Beam Formation	p. 173
Ultrasound Transmit/Receive Cycle	p. 174
Imaging Techniques	p. 175
Apodization or Weighting	p. 175
Dynamic Focusing	p. 176
Multiline Acquisition	p. 177
Codes	p. 178
Doppler Imaging	p. 178
Harmonic Imaging	p. 179
Image Quality Performance Parameters	p. 179
Reflection	p. 179
Absorption	p. 179
Resolution	p. 180
Dynamic Range	p. 181
Speckle	p. 182
Ultrasound Imaging Modalities	p. 182
The Ultrasound System	p. 183
Transducers	p. 183
High-Voltage Multiplexer	p. 184
High-Voltage Transmit/Receive Switch	p. 184
High-Voltage Transmitters	p. 184
Receive Amplifier and Time Gain Control	p. 185
Analog-to-Digital Converter and Beamformer	p. 185
Signal and Image-Processing	p. 185
Transducers	p. 185
Acoustic Characteristics	p. 186
Transducer Performance Characteristics	p. 187
Design and Modeling	p. 189
Electrical Impedance Models	p. 189
Alternative Transducer Technologies	p. 190
Transmit Electronics	p. 192
High-Voltage CMOS Devices	p. 192
Transmit/Receive (T/R) Switch	p. 194
High-Voltage Pulsers	p. 195
Unipolar and Trilevel Pulsers	p. 195
Multilevel Pulsers	p. 197
High-Voltage Multiplexers	p. 199
Tuning	p. 201
Receive Electronics	p. 201
Front-End Receive Signal Chain	p. 201
Low-Noise Preamplifier	p. 202
Time Gain Control Amplifier	p. 202
Analog-to-Digital Converter	p. 203
Power Dissipation and Device Integration	p. 203
Beam-Forming Electronics	p. 204
Digital Beam Formers	p. 204
Analog Beam Formers	p. 205
Hybrid Beam Formers	p. 206
Reconfigurable Arrays	p. 206
Miniaturization	p. 207
Portable Systems	p. 208
Tablet and Handheld Style Units	p. 209
Laptop-Style Units	p. 209
Transducer-ASIC Integration Strategies	p. 209
Co-integrated Single-Chip Devices	p. 210
Highly Integrated Multichip Devices	p. 211
Challenges to Effective Miniaturization	p. 212
Summary	p. 214
Acknowledgments	p. 214
References	p. 214
Magnetic Resonance Imaging	p. 221
Magnetic Resonance Imaging	p. 223
Introduction	p. 223
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)	p. 226
Interaction of Protons with Magnetic Fields	p. 228
Macroscopic Magnetization and T1 Relaxation	p. 229
Rotating Frame and Resonance Condition	p. 230
T2 Relaxation and Bloch Equations	p. 234
Signal Reception, Free Induction Decay, and Spin-Echo	p. 237
Chemical Shift and NMR Spectroscopy	p. 240
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)	p. 242
Spatial Localization	p. 242
Slice Selection	p. 244
Frequency Encoding	p. 246
Phase Encoding	p. 248
k-Space	p. 250
Basic MRI Techniques	p. 252
Spin Echo	p. 253
Gradient Echo	p. 256
Signal and Noise in MRI	p. 257
Fast MRI Techniques	p. 260
RARE Imaging	p. 260
Steady-State Magnetization Imaging	p. 262
Echo Planar Imaging	p. 266
Other Fast Imaging Techniques	p. 269
Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS)	p. 273
References	p. 280
MRI Technology: Circuits and Challenges for Receiver Coil Hardware	p. 285
Introduction	p. 285
The MRI System	p. 285
Typical RF Receive Coil Array	p. 287
Conductorless Signal Transmission	p. 288
Possible Implementations	p. 289
Analog Transmission over Optical Fiber	p. 289
Wireless Analog Transmission	p. 290
Digital Transmission over Optical Fiber	p. 290
Wireless Digital Transmission	p. 290
General Issues	p. 291
Power Use and Delivery	p. 291
Low-Power Alternatives to PIN Diodes	p. 292
On-board Data Compression: The Scaleable, Distributed Spectrometer	p. 294
On-Coil Detection and Demodulation	p. 294
Online Data Pre-processing: Array Compression, Virtual Arrays, and Preconditioning	p. 297
Conclusion	p. 299
References	p. 299
Index	p. 303
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