Isotopes Principles and Applications

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Edition: 3rd
Format: Hardcover
Pub. Date: 2004-10-18
Publisher(s): Wiley
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Summary

The leading textbook and professional resource on isotope geochemistry- completely updated and expanded Since its initial publication as Principles of Isotope Geology in 1977, this has been the most widely used comprehensive textbook in upper-level isotope geochemistry courses. Now in its Third Edition, Isotopes: Principles and Applications has been thoroughly updated, rewritten, reorganized, and expanded to include more than twice the content of its predecessor. Covering radiogenic, radioactive, and stable isotopes, this volume consists of five units that present fundamentals of atomic physics; dating methods for terrestrial and extraterrestrial rocks by means of radiogenic isotopes; geochemistry of radiogenic isotopes; dating by means of U, Th-series and cosmogenic radionuclides; and the fractionation of the stable isotopes of H, C, N, O, and S, as well as Li, B, Si, and Cl. Additionally, this edition provides: Expanded coverage of the U-Pb methods - the most accurate available dating technique Applications to the petrogenesis of igneous rocks Summaries of the use of isotopic data for study of the oceans New examples from the fields of archeology and anthropology Radiation-damage methods of dating including fission tracks, thermoluminescence, and electron spin resonance (ESR) Information on the dispersal of fission-product radionuclides and the disposal of radioactive waste Extensive chapter-by-chapter problems and solutions Supplemented with summaries and references in each chapter, as well as more than 450 drawings and 100 tables, this volume remains the leading resource in isotopegeoscience. Broad applications in many other areas - including geochemistry, geology, meteoritics, physics, chemistry, and biology - make it indispensable throughout the natural sciences.

Author Biography

GUNTER FAURE is Professor Emeritus in the Department of Geological Sciences at The Ohio State University.<BR> TERESA M. MENSING is associate professor in the Department of Geological Sciences at The Ohio State University at Marion.

Table of Contents

Preface xxv
Part I Principles of Atomic Physics
1(72)
Nuclear Systematics
3(12)
Discovery of Radioactivity
3(1)
Internal Structure of Atoms
4(8)
Nuclear Systematics
5(1)
Atomic Weights of Elements
5(2)
Binding Energy of Nucleus
7(1)
Nuclear Stability and Abundance
7(5)
Origin of the Elements
12(2)
Summary
14(1)
References
14(1)
Decay Modes of Radionuclides
15(19)
Beta-Decay
15(9)
Beta- (Negatron) Decay
15(4)
Positron Decay
19(2)
Electron Capture Decay
21(1)
Branched Beta-Decay
22(1)
Energy Profiles of Isobaric Sections
23(1)
Alpha-Decay
24(4)
Parent--Daughter Relations
24(1)
Alpha-Recoil Energy
25(1)
Decay Scheme Diagrams
25(3)
Spontaneous and Induced Fission
28(5)
Spontaneous Fission
29(1)
Induced Fission
29(2)
Nuclear Power Reactors
31(1)
Nuclear Waste
32(1)
Summary
33(1)
References
33(1)
Radioactive Decay
34(21)
Law of Radioactivity
34(3)
Radiation Detectors
37(2)
Geiger--Muller Counters
37(1)
Scintillation Counters
38(1)
Growth of Radioactive Daughters
39(3)
Decay to an Unstable Daughter
39(1)
Secular Equilibrium
40(2)
Units of Radioactivity and Dosage
42(1)
Medical Effects of Ionizing Radiation
43(3)
Sources of Environmental Radioactivity
46(1)
Nuclear Reactions
47(1)
Neutron Activation Analysis
47(6)
Summary
53(2)
References
53(2)
Geochronometry
55(18)
Growth of Radiogenic Daughters
55(2)
Assumptions for Dating
57(3)
Closed System
57(1)
Decay Constants
58(1)
Initial Abundance of Radiogenic Daughters
59(1)
Isochrons
59(1)
Terminology
60(1)
Fitting of Isochrons
60(4)
Unweighted Regression
61(1)
Weighted Regression
61(1)
Goodness of Fit
62(2)
Mass Spectrometry and Isotope Dilution
64(7)
Principles of Mass Spectrometry
64(2)
Equations of Motion of Ions
66(1)
Ion Microprobes
67(1)
Tandem-Accelerator Mass Spectrometers
68(1)
Isotope Dilution Analysis
68(3)
Summary
71(2)
References
71(2)
Part II Radiogenic Isotope Geochronometers
73(272)
The Rb-Sr Method
75(38)
Geochemistry of Rb and Sr
75(1)
Principles of Dating
76(4)
Fractionation Correction
78(1)
Interlaboratory Isotope Standards
78(1)
Rb--Sr Dates of Minerals
79(1)
Rb-Sr Isochrons
80(9)
Mesozoic Granite Plutons of Nigeria
81(2)
Stony and Iron Meteorites
83(2)
Martian Meteorites
85(3)
Lunar Rocks
88(1)
Dating Metamorphic Rocks
89(6)
Isotopic Homogenization
89(4)
Carn Chuinneag Granite, Scotland
93(1)
Amitsoq Gneiss, Southwest Greenland
94(1)
La Gorce Formation, Wisconsin Range, Antarctica
94(1)
Dating Sedimentary Rocks
95(11)
Geological Timescale
95(1)
Glauconite
96(2)
Authigenic Feldspar
98(2)
Detrital Minerals
100(1)
Bentonite and Tuff
101(1)
Shale
102(4)
Summary
106(7)
References
107(6)
The K--Ar Method
113(31)
Principles and Methodology
113(2)
Retention of 40Ar by Minerals
115(5)
Idaho Springs Gneiss, Colorado
116(1)
Snowbank Stock, Minnesota
117(1)
Excess 40Ar
118(2)
K--Ar Isochrons
120(1)
Volcanic Rocks of Tertiary Age
121(5)
Rate of Motion of the Hawaiian Islands
122(1)
Magnetic Reversal Chronology
123(2)
Argon from the Mantle
125(1)
Dating Sedimentary Rocks
126(6)
Shale
127(1)
Potassium-Rich Bentonites
128(1)
Volcanogenic Minerals in Sedimentary Rocks
129(1)
Metasedimentary Rocks
130(2)
Metamorphic Veil
132(2)
Idaho Batholith
132(2)
Continental Crust
134(1)
Precambrian Timescales
134(4)
Summary
138(6)
References
138(6)
The 40Ar*/39Ar Method
144(36)
Principles and Methodology
144(3)
Incremental Heating Technique
147(4)
Marble Mountains, California
149(1)
Diabase Dikes in Liberia, West Africa
150(1)
Excess 40Ar
151(2)
Kola Peninsula, Russia
152(1)
Anorthoclase, Mt. Erebus, Antarctica
152(1)
Argon Isotope Correlation Diagram
153(4)
Portage Lake Volcanics, Michigan
153(2)
Lunar Basalt and Orange Glass
155(2)
Laser Ablation
157(2)
Dating Meteorite Impact Craters
158(1)
Sanidine Crystals, Yellowstone Park, Wyoming
158(1)
Intercalibrations
159(1)
Sedimentary Rocks
159(3)
Loss of 39Ar by Recoil
159(1)
Glauconite and Illite
160(2)
Metasedimentary Rocks
162(4)
Meguma Group, Nova Scotia
162(1)
Barberton Greenstone Belt, Swaziland
163(1)
Dating of Low-K Minerals
164(2)
Metamorphic Rocks: Broken Hill, N.S.W., Australia
166(2)
Thermochronometry: Haliburton Highlands, Ontario, Canada
168(3)
Summary
171(9)
References
172(8)
The K--Ca Method
180(14)
Principles and Methodology
180(3)
Pikes Peak Granite, Colorado
181(1)
Lunar Granite
182(1)
Isotope Geochemistry of Calcium
183(7)
Radiogenic 40Ca in Terrestrial Rocks
184(1)
Mass-Dependent Isotope Fractionation
185(4)
Isotope Anomalies in the Solar Nebula
189(1)
Summary
190(4)
References
191(3)
The Sm-Nd Method
194(20)
Geochemistry of Sm and Nd
194(3)
Principles and Methodology
197(5)
Isotope Fractionation and CHUR
197(2)
Model Dates Based on CHUR
199(1)
Isotope Standards
200(1)
Epsilon Notation
201(1)
Dating by the Sm--Nd Method
202(5)
Onverwacht Group, South Africa
202(2)
Growth of the Continental Crust
204(3)
Meteorites and Martian Rocks
207(2)
Lunar Rocks
209(2)
Summary
211(3)
References
211(3)
The U--Pb, Th--Pb, and Pb--Pb Methods
214(42)
Geochemistry of U and Th
214(1)
Decay of U and Th Isotopes
215(3)
Principles and Methodology
218(3)
U, Th--Pb Dates, Boulder Creek Batholith, Colorado
221(2)
Wetherill's Concordia
223(4)
Gain or Loss of U and Pb
225(1)
Morton Gneiss, Minnesota
226(1)
U-Th-Pb Concordia Diagrams
226(1)
Alternative Pb Loss Models
227(3)
Continuous Diffusion
227(1)
Dilatancy Model
228(1)
Chemical Weathering
229(1)
Cores and Overgrowths
229(1)
Refinements in Analytical Methods
230(3)
Purification of Zircon Grains
230(1)
SHRIMP
231(1)
LA-ICP-MS
232(1)
EMP
232(1)
Dating Detrital Zircon Grains
233(3)
Potsdam Sandstone, New York
233(1)
Pontiac Sandstone, Abitibi Belt, Ontario/Quebec
234(2)
Tera-Wasserburg Concordia
236(4)
Lunar Basalt 14053
238(1)
Other Applications of Tera--Wasserburg Concordia
239(1)
U--Pb, Th--Pb, and Pb--Pb Isochrons (Granite Mountains, Wyoming)
240(2)
U, Th--Pb Isochrons
240(1)
Pb--Pb Isochrons
240(2)
Pb--Pb Dating of Carbonate Rocks
242(3)
Marine Geochemistry of U, Th, and Pb
242(1)
Mushandike Limestone, Zimbabwe
243(1)
Transvaal Dolomite, South Africa
244(1)
U--Pb and Th--Pb Isochrons of Carbonate Rocks
245(4)
Lucas Formation (Middle Devonian), Ontario
245(2)
Zn-Pb Deposits, Tri-State District, United States
247(1)
Speleothems of Quaternary Age
248(1)
Summary
249(7)
References
250(6)
The Common-Lead Method
256(28)
The Holmes-Houtermans Model
256(5)
Decay of U to Pb
257(1)
Decay of Th to Pb
258(1)
Analytical Methods
258(1)
Primeval Pb in Meteorites
259(1)
The Age of Meteorites and the Earth
259(2)
Dating Common Lead
261(7)
The Geochron
261(1)
Dating Single-Stage Leads
262(1)
Lead from Cobalt, Ontario
263(1)
Limitations of the Single-Stage Model
264(1)
The Stacey-Kramers Model
265(2)
Balmat, St Lawrence County, New York
267(1)
Dating K-Feldspar
268(2)
Anomalous Leads in Galena
270(4)
Two-Stage Model Dates
270(1)
Instantaneous Growth of Radiogenic Pb
271(1)
Continuous Growth of Radiogenic Pb
271(1)
Pb-Pb Isochrons
272(1)
Thorogenic Lead
272(1)
Unresolved Issues
273(1)
Lead-Zinc Deposits, Southeastern Missouri
274(5)
Lead in the Ore Minerals
275(2)
Lead in Pyrite
277(1)
Synthesis
278(1)
Multistage Leads
279(1)
Summary
280(4)
References
281(3)
The Lu-Hf Method
284(13)
Geochemistry of Lu and Hf
284(2)
Principles and Methodology
286(2)
CHUR and Epsilon
288(1)
Model Hf Dates Derived from CHUR
289(1)
Applications of Lu-Hf Dating
290(4)
Amitsoq Gneiss, Godthab Area, West Greenland
291(1)
Detrital Zircons, Mt. Narryer, Western Australia
292(2)
Summary
294(3)
References
294(3)
The Re-Os Method
297(25)
Rhenium and Osmium in Terrestrial and Extraterrestrial Rocks
297(4)
Principles and Methodology
301(1)
Molybdenite and 187Re-187Os Isochrons
302(3)
Molybdenite
303(1)
187Re--187Os Isochrons
303(1)
Chromite
304(1)
Meteorites and CHUR-Os
305(5)
Iron Meteorites
305(2)
Chondrites
307(1)
CHUR-Os and ε(Os)
308(2)
Model Dates
310(1)
The Cu--Ni Sulfide Ores, Noril'sk, Siberia
310(2)
Origin of Other Sulfide Ore Deposits
312(1)
Metallic PGE Minerals
313(1)
Gold Deposits of the Witwatersrand, South Africa
314(2)
Osmiridium
315(1)
Gold
315(1)
Pyrite
316(1)
The Solution to the Problem
316(1)
The Pt-Os Method
316(1)
Summary
317(5)
References
317(5)
The La-Ce Method
322(18)
Geochemistry of La and Ce
323(1)
Principles and Methodology
324(3)
La-Ce Isochrons
327(2)
Bushveld Complex, South Africa
327(1)
Lewisian Gneiss, Scotland
328(1)
Meteorites and CHUR-Ce
329(2)
Volcanic Rocks
331(1)
Cerium in the Oceans
332(5)
Ferromanganese Nodules
332(2)
Chert
334(2)
Model Dates for Chert
336(1)
Seawater
336(1)
Summary
337(3)
References
338(2)
The La-Ba Method
340(5)
Geochemistry of La and Ba
340(1)
Principles and Methodology
341(1)
Amitsoq Gneiss, West Greenland
342(1)
Mustikkamaki Pegmatite, Finland
343(1)
Summary
343(2)
References
343(2)
Part III Geochemistry of Radiogenic Isotopes
345(150)
Mixing Theory
347(16)
Chemical Compositions of Mixtures
347(3)
Two-Component Mixtures
347(1)
Sequential Two-Component Mixtures
348(1)
Three-Component Mixtures
349(1)
Isotopic Mixtures of Sr
350(2)
Isotopic Mixtures of Sr and Nd
352(3)
Three-Component Isotopic Mixtures
355(1)
Applications
356(5)
North Channel, Lake Huron, Canada
356(1)
Detrital Silicate Sediment, Red Sea
357(2)
Fictitious Rb-Sr Isochrons
359(1)
Potassic Lavas, Toro-Ankole, East Africa
360(1)
Summary
361(2)
References
361(2)
Origin of Igneous Rocks
363(49)
The Plume Theory
363(1)
Magma Sources in the Mantle
364(1)
Midocean Ridge Basalt
365(4)
Plumes of the Azores
366(1)
Undifferentiated Mantle Reservoir of Sr
367(2)
Basalt and Rhyolite of Iceland
369(6)
Iceland and the Reykjanes Ridge
369(1)
Lead in Iceland Basalt
370(3)
Origin of Rhyolites
373(1)
History of the Iceland Plume
374(1)
The Hawaiian Islands
375(5)
Isotopic Mixtures of Sr, Nd, and Pb
376(1)
Hafnium in Basalt of Oahu
377(2)
Osmium in Hawaiian Basalt
379(1)
HIMU Magma Sources of Polynesia
380(2)
Subduction Zones
382(7)
Mariana Island Arc
383(2)
Andes of South America
385(2)
Ignimbrites
387(2)
Continental Flood Basalt
389(5)
Columbia River Basalt, United States
389(3)
Parana Basalt, Brazil
392(2)
Alkali-Rich Lavas
394(5)
Central Italy
394(1)
Leucite Hills, Wyoming, United States
395(4)
Origin of Granite
399(6)
Batholiths of California
402(1)
Genetic Classification of Granites
403(2)
Summary
405(7)
References
406(6)
Water and Sediment
412(24)
Strontium in Streams
412(7)
Rivers, Precambrian Shield, Canada
413(3)
Groundwater, Precambrian Shield, Canada
416(3)
Sediment in Streams
419(7)
Murray River, N.S.W., Australia
419(4)
Fraser River, British Columbia, Canada
423(3)
Zaire and Amazon Rivers
426(7)
Strontium and Neodymium in Water and Sediment
427(1)
Confluence at Manaus, Brazil
428(1)
Model Dates of Sediment, Amazon River
429(2)
Lead Isotopes, Zaire and Amazon
431(1)
Implications for Petrogenesis
432(1)
Summary
433(3)
References
433(3)
The Oceans
436(59)
Strontium in the Phanerozoic Oceans
436(11)
Present-Day Seawater
436(2)
Phanerozoic Carbonates
438(3)
Mixing Models
441(3)
Sr Chronometry (Cenozoic Era)
444(2)
The Cambrian ``Explosion''
446(1)
Strontium in the Precambrian Oceans
447(4)
Late Proterozoic Carbonates
448(1)
Snowball Earth Glaciations
449(1)
Early Proterozoic and Archean Carbonates
450(1)
Neodymium in the Oceans
451(12)
Continental Runoff
451(2)
Mixing of Nd in the Baltic Sea
453(2)
Present-Day Seawater
455(2)
Ferromanganese Nodules and Crusts
457(4)
Water--Rock Interaction (Ophiolites)
461(2)
Lead in the Oceans
463(7)
Sorption of Pb2+ by Oxyhydroxide Particles
464(1)
Aerosols and Eolian Dust
465(1)
Seawater and Snow
466(3)
Ferromanganese Crusts
469(1)
Osmium in Continental Runoff
470(5)
Rivers
470(2)
Soils
472(1)
Lacustrine Ferromanganese Deposits
473(1)
Anthropogenic Contamination
474(1)
Osmium in the Oceans
475(5)
Seawater
475(2)
Meteoritic Dust
477(1)
Ferromanganese Deposits
477(1)
Isotopic Evolution during Cenozoic Era
478(2)
Hafnium in the Oceans
480(6)
Terrestrial Hf--Nd Array
480(1)
Rivers and Seawater
481(1)
Recent Ferromanganese Nodules
482(2)
Secular Variations
484(2)
Summary
486(9)
References
487(8)
Part IV Short-Lived Radionuclides
495(196)
Uranium/Thorium-Series Disequilibria
497(49)
238U/234U-230Th-Series Geochronometers
498(10)
The 230Th/232Th Method
499(2)
Sedimentation Rate in the Oceans
501(1)
The 234U--230Th Method
502(2)
238U/234U Disequilibrium
504(1)
230Th with 234U/238U Disequilibrium
505(1)
Coral Terraces on Barbados
506(2)
Radium
508(8)
The 226Ra-Ba Method
509(1)
The 228Ra-228Th Method
510(1)
The 228Ra/226Ra Method
511(1)
Isotope Geochemistry of Radium
512(4)
Protactinium
516(5)
The 230Th-231Pa Method
517(1)
Rosholt's 230Th-231Pa Geochronometer
518(2)
Carbonates
520(1)
231Pa-230Th Concordia
521(1)
Lead-210
521(6)
Sorption by Soil
523(1)
Seawater
523(1)
Lake Rockwell, Ohio
524(1)
Snow in Antarctica
525(2)
Archeology and Anthropology
527(4)
Homo erectus
527(1)
The Mojokerto Child
528(1)
Neandertals and Homo sapiens
529(1)
Speleothems and Travertines
530(1)
Volcanic Rocks
531(4)
Dating with 230Th
532(2)
Age of the Olby-Laschamp Event
534(1)
Dating with 231Pa
534(1)
Magma Formation
535(4)
MORBs and OIBs
536(1)
Oceanic and Continental Andesites
536(1)
Carbonatites
537(1)
Applications to Petrogenesis
538(1)
Summary
539(7)
References
540(6)
Helium and Tritium
546(31)
U--Th/He Method of Dating
546(5)
Geochronometry Equation
547(2)
Diffusion of He in Minerals
549(2)
Thermochronometry
551(3)
Otway Basin, South Australia
552(1)
Mt. Whitney, Sierra Nevada Mountains
553(1)
He Dating of Iron-Ore Deposits
554(1)
Tritium-3He Dating
555(5)
Production and Decay of Tritium
555(1)
Thermonuclear Tritium
556(2)
Dating Water (Cosmogenic Tritium)
558(1)
Travel Time of Water in Confined Aquifers
558(1)
Tritiogenic Helium
559(1)
Kirkwood-Cohansey Aquifer, New Jersey
560(1)
Meteorites and Oceanic Basalt
560(6)
Cosmogenic 3He
561(1)
Meteorites
561(1)
Oceanic Basalt
562(4)
Continental Crust
566(5)
Ultramafic Inclusions and Basalt
566(1)
Diamonds
567(1)
Effect of Tectonic Age on He in Groundwater
568(1)
Geothermal Systems
568(2)
Geothermal He, New Zealand
570(1)
Summary
571(6)
References
572(5)
Radiation-Damage Methods
577(36)
Alpha-Decay
577(3)
Pleochroic Haloes
577(2)
Alpha-Recoil Tracks
579(1)
Fission Tracks
580(12)
Methodology
581(2)
Assumptions
583(1)
Geochronometry
583(3)
Track Fading and Closure Temperatures
586(5)
Plateau Dates
591(1)
Applications of Fission-Track Dates
592(3)
The Catskill Delta of New York
592(2)
Damara Orogen, Namibia
594(1)
Thermoluminescence
595(8)
Principles
598(1)
Geochronometry
599(1)
Procedures for TL Dating
600(1)
TL Dating of Sediment
601(2)
Applications
603(1)
Electron-Spin Resonance
603(3)
Principles
603(2)
Assumptions
605(1)
Methodology
606(1)
Summary
606(7)
References
608(5)
Cosmogenic Radionuclides
613(41)
Carbon-14 (Radiocarbon)
614(11)
Principles
615(1)
Assumptions
615(2)
Radiocarbon Dates
617(1)
Secular Variations
618(1)
Isotope Fractionation
619(1)
Methodology
620(2)
Water and Carbonates
622(1)
Applications
623(2)
Beryllium-10 and Aluminum-26 (Atmospheric)
625(8)
Principles
626(3)
Deep-Sea Sediment
629(1)
Ferromanganese Nodules
630(2)
Continental Ice Sheets
632(1)
Exposure Dating (10Be and 26Al)
633(6)
Beryllium-10 and Aluminum-26 in Quartz
634(2)
Erosion Rates
636(2)
The Crux of the Problem
638(1)
Cosmogenic and Thermonuclear 36CI
639(2)
Water and Ice
639(1)
Exposure Dating
640(1)
Meteorites
641(5)
Irradiation Ages
642(1)
Terrestrial Ages
643(3)
Other Long-Lived Cosmogenic Radionuchdes
646(1)
Summary
646(8)
References
647(7)
Extinct Radionuclides
654(13)
The Pd--Ag Chronometer
655(2)
The Al-Mg Chronometer
657(2)
The Hf-W Chronometer
659(3)
FUN in the Solar Nebula
662(1)
Summary
663(4)
References
664(3)
Thermonuclear Radionuclides
667(24)
Fission Products and Transuranium Elements
667(5)
Fission Products
667(1)
Transuranium Elements
668(2)
Disposal of Radwaste (Yucca Mountain, Nevada)
670(1)
Reactor Accidents: Chernobyl, Ukraine
671(1)
Strontium-90 in the Environment
672(6)
Global Distribution (90Sr)
673(1)
Oceans
674(3)
Human Diet
677(1)
Cesium-137 in the Environment
678(4)
Human Diet
679(1)
Soil and Plants
679(2)
Lake Sediment
681(1)
Arctic Ocean: 90Sr/137Cs, 239,240Pu, and 241Am
682(4)
Summary
686(5)
References
687(4)
Part V Fractionation of Stable Isotopes
691(184)
Hydrogen and Oxygen
693(60)
Atomic Properties
693(2)
Mathematical Relations
695(2)
Meteoric Precipitation
697(7)
Temperature Dependence of Fractionation
697(2)
The Rayleigh Equations
699(1)
Meteoric-Water Line
700(1)
Climate Records in Ice Cores
701(3)
Paleothermometry (Carbonates)
704(5)
Principles
704(2)
Assumptions
706(2)
Oxygen-Isotope Stratigraphy
708(1)
Silicate Minerals and Rocks
709(5)
Basalt and the Mantle
710(1)
Thermometry of Silicates and Oxides
711(3)
Water-Rock Interactions (Rocks)
714(4)
Fossil Hydrothermal Systems
714(2)
Hydrothermal Ore Deposits
716(2)
Water-Rock Interactions (Water)
718(7)
Hotsprings and Geysers
718(2)
Mixing of Water
720(1)
Oilfield Brines, United States and Canada
721(3)
Saline Minewaters
724(1)
Clay Minerals
725(2)
Marine Carbonates
727(3)
Marine Phosphates
730(5)
Paleothermometry
730(2)
Fishbones
732(1)
Mammalian Bones
732(1)
Phosphorites
733(2)
Biogenic Silica and Hydroxides of Fe and Al
735(1)
Chert (Phanerozoic and Precambrian)
736(2)
Extraterrestrial Rocks
738(5)
Meteorites
739(2)
Martian Rocks
741(1)
Moon
742(1)
Nucleosynthesis of O Isotopes
742(1)
Summary
743(10)
References
744(9)
Carbon
753(50)
Biosphere
754(3)
Carbon Dioxide
754(1)
Green Plants
754(1)
Life in Extreme Environments
755(2)
Life in the Precambrian Oceans
757(4)
Carbon Isotopes in Precambrian Kerogen
758(1)
Hydrogen Isotopes in Thermophilic Organisms
759(1)
Signs of Life
760(1)
Fossil Fuel
761(2)
Bituminous Coal
761(1)
Petroleum and Natural Gas
762(1)
Carbon-Isotope Stratigraphy (Phanerozoic)
763(5)
Isotope Fractionation
764(1)
Carbonate Rocks
764(3)
Frasnian--Famennian
767(1)
Neoproterozoic--Early Cambrian
767(1)
Precambrian Carbonates
768(6)
Carbon-Isotope Excursions
769(2)
Snowball Earth
771(3)
Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks
774(11)
Volcanic Gases
774(2)
Volcanic Rocks
776(2)
Graphite and Calcite
778(3)
Greek Marbles
781(1)
Diamonds
781(3)
Carbonatites
784(1)
Extraterrestrial Carbon
785(5)
Stony Meteorites
786(1)
Iron Meteorites
787(1)
Lunar Carbon
788(2)
Search for Life on Mars
790(2)
Martian Meteorites
791(1)
ALH 84001
792(1)
Summary
792(11)
References
793(10)
Nitrogen
803(21)
Geochemistry
803(2)
Isotope Fractionation
805(1)
Nitrogen on the Surface of the Earth
806(2)
POM in the Oceans
807(1)
Lacustrine Sediment and the Food Chain
808(1)
Fossil Fuels
808(3)
Igneous Rocks and the Mantle
811(1)
Ultramafic Xenoliths
812(1)
Diamonds
813(2)
Meteorites
815(2)
Moon
817(1)
Mars
818(2)
Summary
820(4)
References
820(4)
Sulfur
824(30)
Isotope Geochemistry
824(1)
Biogenic Isotope Fractionation
825(2)
Sulfur in Recent Sediment
827(1)
Fossil Fuels
828(2)
Petroleum
828(1)
Coal
829(1)
Native Sulfur Deposits
830(1)
Sedimentary Rocks of Precambrian Age
831(2)
Isotopic Evolution of Marine Sulfate
833(2)
Igneous Rocks
835(5)
Contamination
836(1)
Alteration by Seawater
836(1)
Outgassing of SO2
836(4)
Sulfide Ore Deposits
840(3)
Isotope Fractionation among Sulfide Minerals
841(1)
Isotope Fractionation in Ore-Forming Fluids
842(1)
Sulfur in the Environment
843(3)
Mass-Independent Isotope Fractionation
846(1)
Summary
847(7)
References
849(5)
Boron and Other Elements
854(21)
Boron
855(4)
Geochemistry
855(1)
Isotopic Composition
856(2)
Meteorites
858(1)
Summary
859(1)
Lithium
859(4)
Geochemistry
860(1)
Isotope Composition
860(2)
Summary
862(1)
Silicon
863(5)
Geochemistry
863(1)
Isotope Composition
863(1)
Terrestrial Rocks
864(1)
Marine Diatoms
865(1)
Aqueous Isotope Geochemistry
865(1)
Extraterrestrial Rocks
866(2)
Summary
868(1)
Chlorine
868(2)
Geochemistry
868(1)
Isotope Geochemistry
869(1)
Summary
870(1)
Postscript
870(5)
References
870(5)
Index 875(22)
International Geological Timescale (2002) 897

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