Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells

by Goetzberger, Adolf; Knobloch, Joachim; Voss, Bernhard

Edition: 1st

ISBN13: 9780471971443

ISBN10: 0471971448

Format: Hardcover

Pub. Date: 1998-04-15

Publisher(s): Wiley

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Summary

As environmental concerns escalate, solar power is increasingly seen as an attractive alternative energy source. Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells addresses the practical and theoretical issues fundamental to the viable conversion of sunlight into electricity. Written by three internationally renowned experts, this valuable reference profits from results and experience gained from research at the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems. Features include: Introduction to the principles of photovoltaics, providing a grounding in semiconductor physics for the novice reader Special emphasis on the methods of attaining high efficiency and thereby cost-effective solar power Examination of the physics, design and technology of crystalline silicon solar cells, in particular thin film cells Survey of a selection of alternative cell types equipping the reader with a complete overview Detailed description of measuring and analysis techniques to facilitate determining physical semiconductor and solar cell parameters Accessible to those with a basic knowledge of physics and mathematics, this is an excellent introductory book for students studying solid state and semiconductor physics. All those working in photovoltaic development and production will find Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells an indispensable resource.

Author Biography

Adolf Goetzberger is a German physicist. Joachim Knobloch is the author of Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells, published by Wiley.

Preface

(4)

About the Authors

1 Photovoltaics

(4)

1.1 The Principles of Photovoltaics

(1)

1.2 The History of Photovoltaics

(2)

1.3 The Importance of Photovoltaics

(2)

2 Solar Power

(4)

2.1 The Sun as a Source of Radiation

(1)

2.2 Standard Radiation

(3)

3 The Principles of Photovoltaics

(40)

3.1 Crystalline Structure and the Energy Band Diagram for Semiconductors

(11)

3.1.1 The Energy Band Diagram for Tetrahedronal Semiconductors

(4)

3.1.2 Electrons and Holes in a Semiconductor

(1)

3.1.3 Energy Levels: the Fermi Level

(2)

3.1.4 Density of States for Electrons and Holes

(3)

3.1.5 Thermal Equilibrium

(1)

3.2 The Conduction Mechanism in Semiconductors

(9)

3.2.1 Intrinsic Conduction, Field Current and Mobility

(4)

3.2.2 Impurity Conduction

(3)

3.2.3 Diffusion Current and Diffusion Constant

(2)

3.3 The Generation of Charge Carriers by the Absorption of Light

(5)

3.3.1 Absorption in Semiconductors

(4)

3.3.1.1 Absorption in Direct Semiconductors

(2)

3.3.1.2 Absorption in Indirect Semiconductors

(2)

3.4 Recombination, Carrier Lifetime

(10)

3.4.1 Radiative Recombination

(1)

3.4.2 Auger Recombination

(1)

3.4.3 Recombination via Defect Levels

(5)

3.4.4 Recombination by Doping

(2)

3.5 Basic Equations of Semiconductor Device Physics

(5)

3.5.1 The Current Density Equations

(1)

3.5.2 Poisson's Equation

(1)

3.5.3 The Continuity Equations

(4)

4 The p-n Junction

(18)

4.1 Basic Equations

(1)

4.2 Space Charge Region

(9)

4.2.1 Potential Difference

(3)

4.2.2 Electric Field and Electric Potential

(3)

4.2.3 Space Charge Region Width and Capacitance

(2)

4.3 The Biased p-n Junction

(8)

4.3.1 The p-n Junction with Low Recombination and Weak Injection

(1)

4.3.2 Forward Current Characteristic and Saturation Current

(6)

5 The Physics of Solar Cells

(20)

5.1 The Illuminated Infinite p-n Junction

(5)

5.1.1 The Current-Voltage Characteristic of an Infinite Solar Cell

(3)

5.1.1.1 Short Circuit Current

(1)

5.1.1.2 Open Circuit Voltage

(1)

5.1.1.3 Fill Factor

(1)

5.1.1.4 Efficiency

(1)

5.2 Real Solar Cells

(15)

5.2.1 Photocurrents in a Real Solar Cell

(3)

5.2.1.1 Photocurrent from the Base

(2)

5.2.1.2 Photocurrent from the Emitter

(1)

5.2.1.3 Photocurrent from the Space Charge Region

(1)

5.2.2 Saturation Currents in a Real Solar Cell

(3)

5.2.2.1 Saturation Current from the Base

(2)

5.2.2.2 Saturation Current from the Emitter

(1)

5.2.3 Ohmic Resistance in Real Solar Cells

(1)

5.2.3.1 Shunt Resistance (R(p))

(1)

5.2.3.2 Series Resistance (R(s))

(1)

5.2.4 The Two Diode Model

(8)

5.2.4.1 Equivalent Circuit of a Real Solar Cell

(2)

5.2.4.2 The Influence of Ohmic Resistances

(4)

6 High Efficiency Solar Cells

(46)

6.1 The Significance of High Efficiency

(3)

6.2 Electrical Losses

(24)

6.2.1 Recombination Losses

(12)

6.2.1.1 Recombination Losses in the Base

(5)

6.2.1.2 Photocurrent and Saturation Current from the Emitter

(3)

6.2.1.3 The Influence of Base Doping

(3)

6.2.1.4 Recombination in the Space Charge Region

101

(1)

6.2.2 Ohmic Resistance Losses

102

(12)

6.2.2.1 Contact Resistance Metal-Semiconductor

103

(7)

6.2.2.2 Ohmic Losses in the Semiconductors

110

(3)

6.2.2.3 Ohmic Losses in the Metal Contacts

113

(1)

6.3 Optical Losses

114

(8)

6.3.1 Antireflection Processes

114

(6)

6.3.1.1 Antireflection Using a Thin Coating

115

(3)

6.3.1.2 Textured Surfaces

118

(2)

6.3.2 Losses due to Non-Absorbed Light

120

(1)

6.3.3 Shadowing Losses by Contact Fingers

121

(1)

6.4 The Structure of a High Efficiency Solar Cell

122

(1)

6.5 Manufacturing Process for High Efficiency Silicon Solar Cells

123

(10)

6.5.1 Process Sequence for the Highest Efficiency

124

(4)

6.5.2 The Simplified Manufacturing Process

128

(5)

7 Si Solar Cell Technology

133

(30)

7.1 Technology for the Manufacture of Silicon

133

(10)

7.1.1 Basic Material

133

(2)

7.1.2 Refractioning Processes

135

(1)

7.1.3 The Manufacture of Polycrystalline Si Material

135

(1)

7.1.4 Crystal Pulling Process

136

(3)

7.1.4.1 The Czochralski (CZ) Process

136

(2)

7.1.4.2 Float Zone Pulling

138

(1)

7.1.5 The Manufacture of Silicon Wafers

139

(1)

7.1.6 Polycrystalline Silicon Material

139

(2)

7.1.7 Sheet Materials

141

(2)

7.1.7.1 The EFG Process

142

(1)

7.1.7.2 The SSP Process

143

(1)

7.2 Si Solar Cell Technology

143

(20)

7.2.1 Technologies for the p-n Junction

144

(8)

7.2.1.1 Diffusion Technologies and the Theory of Diffusion

144

(4)

7.2.1.2 Diffusion Technologies

148

(4)

7.2.2 Oxidation Technologies

152

(3)

7.2.3 Auxiliary Technologies

155

(1)

7.2.3.1 Etching and Cleaning Techniques

155

(1)

7.2.3.2 Photolithography

156

(1)

7.2.4 The Metallising of Solar Cells

156

(3)

7.2.4.1 The Structuring of the Finger Grid

156

(1)

7.2.4.2 High Vacuum Evaporation Technologies

157

(1)

7.2.4.3 Thick Film Technology

158

(1)

7.2.5 Antireflection Technologies

159

(4)

7.2.5.1 Applying an Antireflection Coating

159

(1)

7.2.5.2 The Manufacture of Textured Silicon Surfaces

160

(3)

8 Selected Solar Cell Types

163

(38)

8.1 Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells

163

(18)

8.1.1 Crystalline Silicon Concentrator Cells

163

(3)

8.1.2 Bifacial Solar Cells

166

(1)

8.1.3 Buried Contact Solar Cells

166

(2)

8.1.4 MIS Solar Cells

168

(1)

8.1.5 Polycrystalline Silicon Solar Cells

169

(2)

8.1.6 Crystalline Silicon Thin Film Cells

171

(7)

8.1.6.1 Advantages and Requirements

171

(2)

8.1.6.2 The Relationship between Electrical and Cell Parameters

173

(3)

8.1.6.3 Manufacturing Technology for Si Thin Film Solar Cells

176

(2)

8.1.7 Multilayer Silicon Solar Cells

178

(3)

8.2 Thin Film Solar Cells

181

(10)

8.2.1 Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells

181

(4)

8.2.2 Gallium-Arsenide Solar Cells

185

(4)

8.2.3 Cadmium-Telluride Solar Cells

189

(1)

8.2.4 Copper-Indium-Diselenide Solar Cells

190

(1)

8.3 Tandem Solar Cells

191

(2)

8.4 Dye-Sensitised Solar Cells

193

(8)

9 Analysis and Measuring Techniques

201

(30)

9.1 The Current-Voltage Characteristics

201

(7)

9.1.1 Measuring the I-V Curve Under Illumination

202

(1)

9.1.2 Measuring the Dark Current Characteristic

203

(5)

9.1.2.1 Dependence of Efficiency on Radiation

205

(1)

9.1.2.2 Dependence of Efficiency on Temperature

206

(2)

9.2 Solar Cell Spectral Response

208

(4)

9.2.1 Spectral Response of a Front Illuminated Solar Cell

208

(2)

9.2.2 Spectral Response of a Back Surface Illuminated Solar Cell

210

(2)

9.3 The PCVD Measurement Techniques

212

(2)

9.4 The PCD Method

214

(3)

9.4.1 Determining the Emitter Saturation Current

215

(2)

9.4.2 Determination of the Surface Recombination Velocity

217

(1)

9.5 Microwave Detected Photocurrent Decay

217

(3)

9.6 Modulated Charge Carrier Absorption

220

(5)

9.7 Short Circuit Current Topography (LBIC)

225

(2)

9.8 The DLTS Process

227

(4)

Appendix A: List of Symbols

231

(2)

Appendix B: Physical Constants, Selected Si Parameters at 300K

233

(2)

Index

235

Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells

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